By Sarah A. O / July 07, 2019
The Muridiyya: Amadou Bamba’s Impact on the Importance of Education and the Creation of the Baye Fall
Youth is the happiest, purest period of time in our human existence. Our minds are fresh and ready to gain insight through soaking in all of our experiences and learning valuable lessons from them. Cultures and methods of upbringing have allowed for children to develop in various ways. Young children who are born into the Mouride learn a massive amount of valuable lessons through Islam that guide them through a life that emphasizes the importance of humility, compassion and hard work. The Muridiyya—also known as the Mouride Brotherhood—is the most prominent and influential religious organization in Senegal and the Gambia (Babou, 311).1Although it was founded in the late 1800s in Senegal, its followers have reached beyond the borders of the country, and have spread to areas such as Europe, other regions of Africa as well as the United States (Babou, 311).2
Sheikh Amadou Bamba, the founder of the Muridiyya, was born in 1853 in Mbakke Bawol, a small village in west-central Senegal (Babou, 311).3 Bamba was educated in the Arabic language, multiple fields of Islamic science, and memorized the Qur’an at a very young age (Babou, 312).4 Bamba had a profound pact to God and claimed that hard work and education are fundamental components to his mission to create a religious community centered around
1 Babou, Cheikh Anta. “Educating The Murid: Theory And Practices Of Education In Amadu Bamba’s Thought.”Journal of Religion in Africa, vol. 33, no. 3, 2003, pp. 310–327., doi:10.1163/157006603322663523.
2 ibid.
3 ibid.
4 ibid.
harmony, goodwill and an impactful connection with Allah. Due to these beliefs from Bamba, the intensity at which religious learning is performed plays a significant role in the growth and development of young Muslims in the Muridiyya.
Our bodies undergo a variety of physical and mental changes in order to grow and evolve into what they currently are. They are tattooed, dressed, worked, decorated and hold such cultural significance for many individuals in various regions. In the Muridiyya, the body is trained rigorously in a valuable phenomenon known as embodiment. Qur’anic schooling uses a bodily approach, similar to Bamba, in order to understand that Islam is more than just religious ideologies to adhere to (Ware, 49).5 According to Ware, religious “knowing was produced as much by the limbs as by the mind (Ware, 49).6 Bamba’s determination to live a full embodied experience through Islam is what guides Qur’anic schooling in the Muridiyya today. Methods such as imbibing the ink of the Qur’an, begging for alms, corporal punishment as well as consistent memorization and recitation—all of which I will discuss later in this paper—are all involved in the process of embodiment within Islam, which is taught so rigorously at youth (Ware, 48).7 Each of these rituals are embedded into the daily lives of young children within the Mouride that allows them to truly acknowledge the process as a form of spiritual maturation.
Sheikh Amadou Bamba had many followers who valued his thought and helped spread his conception of Sufism across the continent. The foundation of the Muridiyya is based on the Bamba’s perception of Sufism that is based on “his family tradition and his scholarship” (Babou,
5 “Education, Embodiment and Epistemology.” The Walking Qurʼan: Islamic Education, Embodied Knowledge, and History in West Africa, by Rudolph T. Ware, The University of North Carolina Press, 2014, pp. 39–76.
6 ibid.
7 ibid.
77).8 He wanted to not only blend mysticism and sharia law into his idea of Sufism, but he also wanted to incorporate societal involvement and equality into the principles of practicing Islam (Babou, 78).9 These beliefs from Bamba, that highlight individual growth and facilitate the circulation of people and their ideas, have allowed Muslims within the Muridiyya to present their religious devotion in unconventional ways. Early religious commitment and affiliation has allowed Muslim youth within the Murridiya to play a significant role in embodiment, knowledge production and education. Through public displays that present Sheikh Amadou Bamba as a holy figure/role model along with his teachings, it has allowed young Muslims to value the methods he used to further his Islamic education, knowledge and embodiment and use it in their own spiritual development. He has also paved the road for other followers of the Muridiyya to create different representations of religious expression and practice, such as the Baye Fall.
Amadou Bamba is the centralized figure within the Mouride that many Muslims based their religious practice around. According to historical documents, Bamba “displayed behavior that clearly showed he was not an ordinary child” (Babou, 52).10 It is said that as a child, he always showed exemplary behavior and barely cried (Babou, 52).11 The only encounters in which he would cry were when he “was taken to places where people were engaged in action prohibited by Islam,” which clearly reveals his respect towards Islamic law, starting at such a young age (Babou, 52).12 In his house, he would sleep and play in the spot that was reserved for daily prayers (Babou, 52).13 He finished his Qur’anic education by twelve years-old and began to
8 Babou, Cheikh Anta Mbacké. Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal: 1853-1913. Ohio Univ. Press, 2007.
9 ibid.
10 ibid.
11 ibid12 ibid.13 ibid.
center his attention on the study of Islamic sciences (Babou, 53).14 These are just a few examples of the many anecdotes that are repeatedly told to children of the Muridiyya in order to stress the importance of education and religious learning during youth.
Image. 1 “Seynabou stands in front of an illustration of Amadou Bamba. The image is ubiquitous in Senegal. This drawing is based on one of the only known photographs taken of Bamba in 1913. Thiès, Senegal. 2014” (Crowder). Source: Photo by Laylah Amatullah Barrayn. Access via The Washington Post.15
Bamba is “the most influential figure of contemporary Senegalese history” and the one of the main role models for young Muslims growing up in Muridiyyan culture (Babou, 52).16Growing up within the Mouride Brotherhood, children are constantly exposed to public displays
14 ibid.
15 Crowder, Nicole. “The Roots of Fashion and Spirituality in Senegal’s Islamic Brotherhood, the Baye Fall.” The
Washington Post, WP Company, 23 Jan. 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/news/in-sight/wp/2015/01/23/the-roots-of-fashion-and-spirituality-in-senegals-islamic-br otherhood-the-baye-fall/?utm_term=.6ec6c8d895c2.
16 ibid.
of Bamba presented as a holy figure (see Image 1). In many of the illustrations of Bamba—such as the one presented above—he wears all white and stands taller than most of the citizens that come to see his display. These characteristics within the illustration present the purity that he emanates—even after his lifetime—as well as the significance behind the way his body/figure is presented to the masses, respectively. According to Murīd sources, Bamba was portrayed as amujaddid, which is the Arabic term for a “renovator” (Ngom, 70).17 In the Qur’an it is said that Prophet Muhammad claimed that God “would send a mujaddid at the beginning of every lunar century” (Ngom, 70).18 Therefore, Bamba is seen as an exceptional, holy figure who was sent from God in order to restore peace and incorporate ethical notions into everyday religious practices (Ngom, 70).19 Furthermore, the attribute that makes Bamba so cherished in the eyes of his followers is his urge to emphasize ethical and spiritual training and accomodate the diverse needs” of his community (Ngom, 71).20 In the Muridiyya, Bamba’s emphasis on ethics “became the cornerstone of his doctrine and pedagogy (Ngom, 71).21 His movement became so widespread and his viewpoint appealed to the masses within the first twelve years of its creation (Ngom, 74).22 Bamba’s self-assurance on the effect his own doctrines is another factor that makes him revered to this day. Bamba once told his followers: “Those who are inspired by God to follow me are fortunate for they will attain rewards that surpass what is possible and will be preserved from misfortune in the two abodes, on earth and in the hereafter.” This promise, that accentuates an everlasting life of good fortune, is just one of the many uplifting statements that
17 Ngom, Fallou. Muslims beyond the Arab World the Odyssey of Ajami and the Muridiyya. Oxford University Press, 2016.
18 ibid.
19 ibid.
20 ibid.21 ibid.22 ibid.
were (and still are) attractive to the masses (Ngom, 78).23 His followers choose to not only honor all his worthy contributions and promises to the practice of the religion, but they use this singular image to venerate him.
This one surviving photograph of Bamba, taken by French colonial authorities in 1913, functions as more than just a portrait, but rather perpetuates the belief that he will always be in their presence (Ngom, 47).24 This photograph has been posted on buses, taxis, walls, billboards etc. all over Senegal (Ngom, 47).25 The context behind this image of Bamba is quite compelling due to the fact that this photograph—which is known to convey his piety, sainthood and transcendence—was taken by the French colonial administration (Ngom, 47).26 The French have always been suspicious of Bamba and his intentions behind the creation of the Muridiyya (Ngom, 116).27 He had a complicated, frustrating relationship with French colonial rule as he spent seven years in exile in Gabon. This was because banishment was a policy often used when their power was being threatened (Ngom, 124)28 Bamba and his disciples were viewed as “destroyers of whites” (Ngom, 119).29 They were allegedly violent, aggressive individuals that were planning attacks against their colonial rule (Ngom, 116).30 However, there was nothing hostile about his tactics towards facing colonial oppression. Bamba remained peaceful throughout intense colonial intervention and prayed as a method of defiance (Ngom, 116).31 That is why Murids today profusely celebrate this image and the stance that he took as a declaration of
23 ibid.24 ibid.25 ibid.26 ibid.27 ibid.28 ibid.29 ibid.30 ibid.31 ibid.
the ideological, cultural and spiritual independence of French hegemony (Ngom, 123).32 The fact that the the photo is still highly venerated in Muridiyyan culture despite being taken by the French during their harsh dictorship exemplifies the value that Bamba’s stance of peace/nonviolence holds within their community. The legacy of Bamba remains strong within the Mouride and through this image, we can clearly understand the cultural signifcance that he holds as a holy figure.
Islamic education and knowledge production are very important factors to spiritual development within the Muridiyya. In general, Qu’ranic education is a impactful, long tradition in Senegambia (Babou, 315).33 Amadou Bamba belonged to one of the top three families with a long tradition of Islamic learning and were leaders in reform within their community (Babou, 312).34 Just after attaining leadership that was passed down from his family, he created a pedagogy that he created in 1884; it emphasizes hard work and religious practices instead of just the main ideologies within Islam (Babou, 312).35 Bamba had a vision for schooling that was described as “a lifelong education geared towards the transformation of the character and behavior” of his followers and more importantly, his disciples (Babou, 316).36 He felt that the investment of lifelong knowledge should be incorporated into the practice of Islam and for him, “the primary duty of a human being was to seek an education” (Babou, 315-316).37 Informal and formal rituals, along with embodiment, are very important in the process of becoming a Muslim. The idea of embodiment emphasizes the importance of adversity on the body as a way to
32 ibid.33 ibid.34 ibid.35 ibid.36 ibid.37 ibid.
internalize the words of the Qur’an and prepare the body to fully receive the word of Allah (Ware, 57).38 The way you respect your body in the Islamic faith is training the body like you would train the mind (Ware, 67).39 Nicole Bourque made an eloquent observation about embodiment and state that “the physica aspects of becoming a Muslim-changing your diet, your clothes, the way you wash; looking down when you pass men in the streets; and the actions of praying-all play an important role in the creation of a new identity” (Oestergaard, 4).40Embodiment, which is a crucial component to Islamic learning, involves tranforming your whole way of life in order to gain a better religious understanding of life. Bourque goes on to say that “your new religion becomes, embodied, and your action serve to reaffirm your identity as a Muslim” (Oestergaard, 4).41 The perception of Qur’anic education is quite negative in the West due to the child labor, the exertertion of the body and mind, corporal punishment and other methods that are used to have an embodied experience with Islam. However “many who had lived the Qur’an school experience remembered the discipline as formative, positive, and foudational” (Ware, 43).42 This false perception comes from individuals who don’t understand the cultural significance behind Bamba’s vision for Islamic education. But according to Muridiyyan culture, “Bamba taught his followers inner strength: willpower, resilence, optimism, and perseverance in the face of challenges and adversity” (Ngom, 76).43 Each ritual or practice that is involved in the learning process in Islam in the Muridiyya has a purpose; they each serve as an essential component towards personal growth and development within the religion.
38 ibid.
39 ibid.
40 Oestergaard, Kate. “The Process of Becoming Muslim: Ritualization and Embodiment.” Journal of Ritual Studies,University of Pittsburgh, 1989, pp. 1–13.
41 ibid.
42 ibid.
43 ibid.
Image. 2 – Young Mouride children in Qur’anic School using a writing block made of wood in order to write important religious texts. The use of a tablet of wood is a very common tool used in Islamic schools in Africa. Children write on it then read it over and over again until they have memorized. It is then erased to memorize the next section of Qur’anic texts. Source: Photo by unknown. Access via mouridiya.org.
Mastering Islamic rituals is an intricate process that takes a copious amount of time, which is why it is often taught at an age where the brain is the most receptive to learning. The Qur’an is the foundation to their religious learning and “it is taught to children at the very dawn of reason and moral responsibility” at the age of seven (Ware, 43).44 The teacher has a huge responsibility and must “protect the sanctity of the Word while producing an educated and discipline child” (Ware, 43).45 One of the first rituals that is taught is prayer. The training that is “involved in the performance of the prayer is a matter of learning concrete and concise/precise
44ibid.45ibid.
rules” (Oestergaard, 4).46 Not only do Muslims have to memorize and recite the exact prayers fluently, they also have to be aware of the positions of their body during the time of prayer, which is five times a day. According to most Muslims, learning the Qur’an is supposed to be difficult (Ware, 45).47 The strenuous process of learning the ins and outs of Islam is the essence of what shapes their character. According to an interview led by Oestergaard, prayer is extremely important in the religion and is considered “a technique in the process of becoming Muslim” (Oestergaard, 4).48 There is a tremendous connection between body movement and symbolization during prayer (Oestergaard, 4).49 When your head is facing towards the ground as you bow, you are in complete submission and that is the essence of each prayer; you’re displaying your pure devotion to God (Oestergaard, 4).50 Everyday prayer becomes ritualized and “gives a transcendent legitimacy” (Oestergaard, 4).51 Memorization and recitation are charactericterized as “corporeal knowledge practices” (Ware, 57).52 One meaningful tradition that is incorporated with these corporeal knowledge practices is drinking/imbibing the Qur’an. The practice consists of “actually imbibing the ink used to write verse from the Book” (Ware, 57).53 This practice of preparing the body to receive the Word—which is commonly used in the Muridiyya—is closely linked with Qur’an schooling in West Africa, however it has been rooted in the religion since its creation (Ware, 58).54 It is very important to acknowledge the role that
46 ibid.47ibid.48 ibid.49 ibid.50 ibid.51 ibid.52 ibid.53 ibid54 ibid.
imbibing the Qur’an has in process of embodiment because the Book—consisted of Muhammad’s most sacred revelations—is the basis of their beliefs and practices.
Hardship and suffering is ingrained in the doctrines of Islamic learning and development. During his lifetime, Amadou Bamba took a pledge of endless suffering in order to enhance his religious title and help his religious community reach a point of unity with God (Ngom, 126).55This pledge is one of the most commerate events of his life and is celebrated every year (Ngom, 127).56 Also, The Prophet’s revelations were physically painful as well (Ware, 45).57 The idea that two of the most prominent religious leaders within the Muridiyya have suffered and dealt with hardship in order to attain inner peace is what drives Muslims through such an arduous process. Another practice within Islamic learning—that deals with the physical and mental exertion of the body—is the quest for alms. The quest for alms, also known as yalwaan, is known as the begging of food and other necessities as an educational model of training. It is considered a responsibility to God in order to understand that those who have and those who don’t have are considered equality in His eyes (Ware, 43).58 Yalwaan i s not a marker of poverty, but is rather a form of religious training that teaches humility. It is apart of the whole embodied experience. It is an indicator of growth, maturity, and self-effacement within Muslim community, especially during youth (Ohiomah).59
One of the most impressive elements to the Muridiyya is its ability to sustain such relevance and influence throughout the centuries that it has existed. It has grown exponentially since its founding date of 1883. The supportability and continuity of the Muridiyya stems from
55 ibid.
56 ibid.
57 ibid.
58 ibid.
59 https://docs.google.com/document/d/1JbcQOd-LFxZbksnlIe5xd-xlMh6yWfXQypATsG7FAiw/edit
their ability to “adapt to French colonial rule” through Bamba’s leadership in the late 1800s (Babou, 3).60 Despite the immense suppression from the French, Bamba preached of peace and used “education as the main weapon in this battle to control the soul and provide his people with a shield” against the abhorrent influence of their colonial rule (Babou 312).61 Due to the weight put on peace in the midst of oppression, the Muridiyya has not only been able to remain a strong unit for centuries now, but it has also been able to open new branches within the organization that express their faith quite differently, such as the Baye Fall.
Image. 3 – A picture of three kids of the Baye Fall, a popular Mouride subsection in Senegal. They are characterized through their dreadlocks and multi-colored attire. Source: Photo by unknown. Access via face2faceafrica.com
60 ibid.61 ibid.
The Baye Fall is a subsection of the Muridiyya, founded by Sheikh Ibrahima Fall soon after the creation of the Muridiyya (Weston).62 Amadou Bamba and Ibrahima Fall had a close relationship. Fall had been searching for years in the hopes of finding a savior or a spiritual guide to lead him towards God (Weston).63 It is believed that once he found Bamba he “stripped naked, walked on his knees to where Bamba was sitting, and pressed the back of the marabout’s hand to his forehead” and then stated that “‘I will do everything that you order me. I will abstain from anything you forbid me’”(Weston).64 He would later become one of the most influential disciples of Bamba. Sheikh Ibrahima Fall is known as the most devout disciple, but also the most controversial (Ngom, 95).65
According to Ngom, there is a significant amount of mystery behind Ibrahima Fall but “his treatment among academics and Muslim is scant and disparaging” (Ngom, 95).66 He altered his religious expression of Islam by renouncing the two most basic requirements of the religion: praying five times a day and fasting during Ramadan (Ngom, 95).67 According to Fall, “prayer is a means of turning one’s mind to God, and that since his whole life was dedicated to God’s service it was therefore superfluous” (Weston).68 Instead, he decided to devote his life to the “core socioethical and mystical ethos” of the Muridiyyan movement at the time (Ngom, 95).69Fall emulated Bamba’s life and lived by this words scrupulously, especially pertaining to hardwork. He would spend his time going to the forest to get firewood and water for the leader’s
62Weston, Mark. “Senegal News.” Senegal, senegal.mynews.club/news/touba—the-spiritual-heart-of-senegal.html.63 ibid.
64 ibid.
65 ibid.
66 ibid.67 ibid.68 ibid.69 ibid.
compound instead of praying (Weston).70 According to sources, Bamba opened a new village at Touba in 1888 in which Fall “cleared the land, dug the wells, built the first compounds and laid the foundation stones of the mosque” (Weston).71 Fall was an essential source of support for Bamba during the early moments of his movement, but his image was tainted due to his methods of practice. In our class, we have already examined the implications behind refusing to pray and fast, which include social chatisement. There is a huge misunderstanding about the reasons behind Ibrahima Fall’s actions, especially due to historical sources (Ngom, 95).72 Historians draw a distorted image of Fall. A French colonial expert by the name of Paul Marty who studied the Muridiyya presumed that the Murids, Ibrahima Fall in particular, was the “result of their ignorance of the tenets of Islam and the influence of their ‘pagan’ African past. This is why the Muridiyya—but the Baye Fall especially—face extensive backlash from their movement, from a surface level standpoint.
During Bamba’s exile, Fall gathered followers and named his movement Baye Fall, which would become the most controversial subgroup within Mouridism (Weston).73 Some members of the Baye Fall openly drink alcohol, smoke tobacco as well as marijuana. The Baye Fall has “an unorthodox relationship with the traditional tenets of their religion” (Weston).74They do not fast during Ramadan. While other members of the Muridiyya adhere to the Five Pillars of Islam—-the basic acts and principles of the religion—the Baye Fall only follow the first which is the profession of the faith (Weston).75 While the practice of yalwaan consist of
70 ibid.71 ibid.72 ibid.73 ibid.74 ibid.75 ibid.
giving and receiving, members of the Baye Fall more commonly beg for alms than give them. You will commonly find them on the street corners of the main cities of Senegal (Weston).76Very few of them take the pilgrimmage to Mecca due to financial constraints or simply because of Fall’s idea of prayer being “superfluous” (Weston).77 Nowadays, the view of the Baye Fall is rather negative. According to a citizen in Senegal, the Baye Fall is based around working hard and helping other but “they don’t want to help anybody, they just want money so they can smoke and drink” (Weston).78 Due to the stigmatization behind the Baye Fall, being born into the identity can be quite difficult and the consequences of choosing to become one are even worse (Weston).79 Although the Baye Fall are considered disreputable and may not adhere to the basic principle of Islam, the intentions behind their actions are sincere and purposeful. The challenges that the Baye Fall face clearly shows the exclusion that Muslims of the Mouride can face solely based on their method of religious expression.
Amadou Bamba has clearly had an impact on Islamic education and the prominent sector of the Muridiyya, the Baye Fall. His ideologies and his methods of practice are still used today to create a united Muridiyya. That one surviving photograph keeps his legacy alive and reminds members what is truly important to their religious practice. Being apart of the Muridiyya is a commitment. Through embodiment, Muslims fully submerge themselves into the religion and find the true meaning behind their actions when practing Islam. The meaning behind these actions are heartfelt and essential when raising kids. Learning these valuable traditions at such a young age teaches children discipline and allows the traditions to pass down for generations. The
76 ibid.77 ibid.78 ibid.79 ibid.
Baye Fall has shown us that the Muridiyya can act as a source of inspiration to create another Islamic community that doesn’t necessarily adhere to the social norms within community. It has also shown us the discrimination that one can face if these norms aren’t particularly met all the way. The Muridiyya is a marvelous sector of Islam that has immense power in its ability to adapt to different setting, making it one of the most influential religious groups in history.